1. Sources for History

Human history can be traced to its origins and beyond based on several available sources. These include written material, archeological evidence, and anthropology. We rely on genetic, linguistic, and other secondary sources for periods and regions that do not offer written sources for history.

2. Pre-history (c. 3.3 million years ago to c. 5000 years ago)

History preceding the advent of writing is called pre-history. This period deals with the emergence of modern humans through two distinct phases – the Paleolithic and the Neolithic.

2.1 Early Humans

Studies show homo sapiens diverged from their closest living relatives (chimpanzees and bonobos) around 4.6 to 6.2 million years ago.

Significant anatomical changes began emerging around 300,000 years ago, with substantial behavioral changes emerging around 50,000 years ago.

2.2 Paleolithic Era

The Paleolithic era or the old stone age presents the first evidence of intelligent tool use amongst humans and the evolution of hunter-gatherer nomadic societies.

This period marks the development of language amongst some societies and the evolution of cultural belief systems and practices such as the burial of the dead.

The earliest evidence of art can be found in cave paintings and carvings made from wood, ivory, or stone. These paintings and carvings usually carried spiritual significance.

Societies that emerged during this time preferred to occupy open areas with sparse vegetation close to forests or other food sources such as streams and rivers.

By around 12,000 years ago, these modern humans had spread to all habitable parts of the world.

2.3 Neolithic Era

The second period called the Neolithic or the new stone age, presents evidence of advancement in agriculture and animal husbandry. The agricultural revolution is a defining feature of this period that led to permanent pastoral societies and communities. This period also marks the widescale domestication of animals amongst modern humans.

Evidence of crop cultivation exists from as far back as 10,000 BC. Cultivation of Wheat and barley and domestication of sheep and goats were evident in the Middle East by 8500 BCE, in the Indus Valley around 6000 BCE, in the Yellow River and Yangtze River in China around 7000-8000 BCE, and in the Americas around 4000 to 3500 BCE.

The use of metal ornaments and tools is also evident from around 6000 BCE during this period.

Agriculture produced food surpluses that allowed for population densification and the birth of cities and states. Cities were hubs of commerce, industry, and politics. Cities developed symbiotic relationships with their rural surroundings, absorbing agricultural products and providing manufactured goods, military control, and protection.

Early civilizations began in Lower Mesopotamia (3000 BCE), then Egypt along the Nile (3000 BCE), Harappa in the Indus Valley (2500 BCE), and Chinese civilization along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers (2200 BCE).

These societies shared many traits with a central government, complex economic and social structures, sophisticated languages, writing systems, and religions. These cultures invented the wheel, mathematics, bronze-working, sailing boats, weaving, monumental buildings, and writing. Writing aided city administration, idea expression, and information preservation. At least four ancient cultures may have developed writing independently: Mesopotamia (3400-3100 BCE), Egypt (3250 BCE), China (2000 BCE), and lowland Mesoamerica (by 650 BCE).

Anthropomorphic gods were popular during the Neolithic period. The deification of the Sun, Moon, Earth, Sky, and Sea was common. Temples developed from shrines, with a complicated system of priests, priestesses, and other functionaries. The Egyptian Pyramid Texts, which date from 2400-2300 BCE, are among the earliest extant written religious writings.